# Extreme Learning Machine

#### Lampros Mouselimis

#### 2022-01-27

As of 2018-06-17 the elmNN package was archived and due to the fact that it was one of the machine learning functions that I used when I started learning R (it returns the output results pretty fast too) plus that I had to utilize the package last week for a personal task I decided to reimplement the R code in Rcpp. It didn’t take long because the R package was written, initially by the author, in a clear way. In the next lines I’ll explain the differences and the functionality just for reference.

### Differences between the elmNN (R package) and the elmNNRcpp (Rcpp Package)

- The reimplementation assumes that both the predictors ( x ) and the response variable ( y ) are in the form of a matrix. This means that character, factor or boolean columns have to be transformed (onehot encoded would be an option) before using either the elm_train or the elm_predict function.
- The output predictions are in the form of a matrix. In case of regression the matrix has one column whereas in case of classification the number of columns equals the number of unique labels
- In case of classification the unique labels should begin from 0 and the difference between the unique labels should not be greater than 1. For instance, unique_labels = c(0, 1, 2, 3) are acceptable whereas the following case will raise an error : unique_labels = c(0, 2, 3, 4)
- I renamed the poslin activation to relu as it’s easier to remember ( both share the same properties ). Moreover I added the leaky_relu_alpha parameter so that if the value is greater than 0.0 a leaky-relu-activation for the single-hidden-layer can be used.
- The initilization weights in the elmNN were set by default to uniform in the range [-1,1] ( ‘uniform_negative’ ) . I added two more options : ‘normal_gaussian’ ( in the range [0,1] ) and ‘uniform_positive’ ( in the range [0,1] ) too
- The user has the option to include or exclude bias of the one-layer feed-forward neural network

### The elmNNRcpp functions

The functions included in the elmNNRcpp package are the following and details for each parameter can be found in the package documentation,

elmNNRcpp
elm_train(x, y, nhid, actfun, init_weights = “normal_gaussian”, bias = FALSE, …)
elm_predict(elm_train_object, newdata, normalize = FALSE)
onehot_encode(y)

### elmNNRcpp in case of Regression

The following code chunk gives some details on how to use the elm_train in case of regression and compares the results with the lm ( linear model ) base function,

    # load the data and split it in two parts
    #----------------------------------------

    data(Boston, package = 'KernelKnn')

    library(elmNNRcpp)

    ## Loading required package: KernelKnn

    Boston = as.matrix(Boston)
    dimnames(Boston) = NULL

    X = Boston[, -dim(Boston)[2]]
    xtr = X[1:350, ]
    xte = X[351:nrow(X), ]

    # prepare / convert the train-data-response to a one-column matrix
    #-----------------------------------------------------------------

    ytr = matrix(Boston[1:350, dim(Boston)[2]], nrow = length(Boston[1:350, dim(Boston)[2]]),

                 ncol = 1)

    # perform a fit and predict [ elmNNRcpp ]
    #----------------------------------------

    fit_elm = elm_train(xtr, ytr, nhid = 1000, actfun = 'purelin',

                        init_weights = "uniform_negative", bias = TRUE, verbose = T)

    ## Input weights will be initialized ...
    ## Dot product of input weights and data starts ...
    ## Bias will be added to the dot product ...
    ## 'purelin' activation function will be utilized ...
    ## The computation of the Moore-Pseudo-inverse starts ...
    ## The computation is finished!
    ##
    ## Time to complete : 0.07127595 secs

    pr_te_elm = elm_predict(fit_elm, xte)

    # perform a fit and predict [ lm ]
    #----------------------------------------

    data(Boston, package = 'KernelKnn')

    fit_lm = lm(medv~., data = Boston[1:350, ])

    pr_te_lm = predict(fit_lm, newdata = Boston[351:nrow(X), ])

    # evaluation metric
    #------------------

    rmse = function (y_true, y_pred) {

      out = sqrt(mean((y_true - y_pred)^2))

      out
    }

    # test data response variable
    #----------------------------

    yte = Boston[351:nrow(X), dim(Boston)[2]]

    # mean-squared-error for 'elm' and 'lm'
    #--------------------------------------

    cat('the rmse error for extreme-learning-machine is :', rmse(yte, pr_te_elm[, 1]), '\n')

    ## the rmse error for extreme-learning-machine is : 23.36543

    cat('the rmse error for liner-model is :', rmse(yte, pr_te_lm), '\n')

    ## the rmse error for liner-model is : 23.36543

### elmNNRcpp in case of Classification

The following code script illustrates how elm_train can be used in classification and compares the results with the glm ( Generalized Linear Models ) base function,

    # load the data
    #--------------

    data(ionosphere, package = 'KernelKnn')

    y_class = ionosphere[, ncol(ionosphere)]

    x_class = ionosphere[, -c(2, ncol(ionosphere))]     # second column has 1 unique value

    x_class = scale(x_class[, -ncol(x_class)])

    x_class = as.matrix(x_class)                        # convert to matrix
    dimnames(x_class) = NULL

    # split data in train-test
    #-------------------------

    xtr_class = x_class[1:200, ]
    xte_class = x_class[201:nrow(ionosphere), ]

    ytr_class = as.numeric(y_class[1:200])
    yte_class = as.numeric(y_class[201:nrow(ionosphere)])

    ytr_class = onehot_encode(ytr_class - 1)                                     # class labels should begin from 0 (subtract 1)

    # perform a fit and predict [ elmNNRcpp ]
    #----------------------------------------

    fit_elm_class = elm_train(xtr_class, ytr_class, nhid = 1000, actfun = 'relu',

                              init_weights = "uniform_negative", bias = TRUE, verbose = TRUE)

    ## Input weights will be initialized ...
    ## Dot product of input weights and data starts ...
    ## Bias will be added to the dot product ...
    ## 'relu' activation function will be utilized ...
    ## The computation of the Moore-Pseudo-inverse starts ...
    ## The computation is finished!
    ##
    ## Time to complete : 0.03828526 secs

    pr_elm_class = elm_predict(fit_elm_class, xte_class, normalize = FALSE)

    pr_elm_class = max.col(pr_elm_class, ties.method = "random")

    # perform a fit and predict [ glm ]
    #----------------------------------------

    data(ionosphere, package = 'KernelKnn')

    fit_glm = glm(class~., data = ionosphere[1:200, -2], family = binomial(link = 'logit'))

    ## Warning: glm.fit: fitted probabilities numerically 0 or 1 occurred

    pr_glm = predict(fit_glm, newdata = ionosphere[201:nrow(ionosphere), -2], type = 'response')

    pr_glm = as.vector(ifelse(pr_glm < 0.5, 1, 2))

    # accuracy for 'elm' and 'glm'
    #-----------------------------

    cat('the accuracy for extreme-learning-machine is :', mean(yte_class == pr_elm_class), '\n')

    ## the accuracy for extreme-learning-machine is : 0.9006623

    cat('the accuracy for glm is :', mean(yte_class == pr_glm), '\n')

    ## the accuracy for glm is : 0.8940397

### Classify MNIST digits using elmNNRcpp

I found an interesting Python implementation / Code on the web and I thought I give it a try to reproduce the results. I downloaded the MNIST data from my Github repository and I used the following parameter setting,

    # using system('wget..') on a linux OS
    #-------------------------------------

    system("wget https://raw.githubusercontent.com/mlampros/DataSets/master/mnist.zip")

    mnist <- read.table(unz("mnist.zip", "mnist.csv"), nrows = 70000, header = T,

                        quote = "\"", sep = ",")

    x = mnist[, -ncol(mnist)]

    y = mnist[, ncol(mnist)]

    # using system('wget..') on a linux OS
    #-------------------------------------

    system("wget https://raw.githubusercontent.com/mlampros/DataSets/master/mnist.zip")

    mnist <- read.table(unz("mnist.zip", "mnist.csv"), nrows = 70000, header = T,

                        quote = "\"", sep = ",")

    x = mnist[, -ncol(mnist)]

    y = mnist[, ncol(mnist)] + 1

    # use the hog-features as input data
    #-----------------------------------

    hog = OpenImageR::HOG_apply(x, cells = 6, orientations = 9, rows = 28, columns = 28, threads = 6)

    y_expand = elmNNRcpp::onehot_encode(y - 1)

    # 4-fold cross-validation
    #------------------------

    folds = KernelKnn:::class_folds(folds = 4, as.factor(y))
    str(folds)

    START = Sys.time()

    fit = lapply(1:length(folds), function(x) {

      cat('\n'); cat('fold', x, 'starts ....', '\n')

      tmp_fit = elmNNRcpp::elm_train(as.matrix(hog[unlist(folds[-x]), ]), y_expand[unlist(folds[-x]), ],

                                     nhid = 2500, actfun = 'relu', init_weights = 'uniform_negative',

                                     bias = TRUE, verbose = TRUE)

      cat('******************************************', '\n')

      tmp_fit
    })

    END = Sys.time()

    END - START

    # Time difference of 5.698552 mins

    str(fit)

    # predictions for 4-fold cross validation
    #----------------------------------------

    test_acc = unlist(lapply(1:length(fit), function(x) {

      pr_te = elmNNRcpp::elm_predict(fit[[x]], newdata = as.matrix(hog[folds[[x]], ]))

      pr_max_col = max.col(pr_te, ties.method = "random")

      y_true = max.col(y_expand[folds[[x]], ])

      mean(pr_max_col == y_true)
    }))

    test_acc

    # [1] 0.9825143 0.9848571 0.9824571 0.9822857

    cat('Accuracy ( Mnist data ) :', round(mean(test_acc) * 100, 2), '\n')

    # Accuracy ( Mnist data ) : 98.3